Metaphysical Poetry

Metaphysical poets The metaphysical poets is a term coined by the poet and critic John Dryden to describe a loose group of British lyric poets of the 17th century, whose work was characterized by the inventive use of conceits, and by speculation about topics such as love or religion. These poets were not formally affiliated; most of them did not even know or read each other.Their style was characterized by wit and metaphysical conceits—far-fetched or unusual similes or metaphors, such as in Andrew Marvell’s comparison of the soul with a drop of dew; in an expanded epigram format, with the use of simple verse forms, octosyllabic couplets, quatrains or stanzas in which length of line and rhyme scheme enforce the sense. The specific definition of wit which Johnson applied to the school was: â€Å"†¦ a kind of discordia concors; a combination of dissimilar images, or discovery of occult resemblances in things apparently unlike. Their poetry diverged from the style of their times, containing neither images of nature nor allusions to classical mythology, as were common. Several metaphysical poets, especially John Donne, were influenced by Neo-Platonism. One of the primary Platonic concepts found in metaphysical poetry is the idea that the perfection of beauty in the beloved acted as a remembrance of perfect beauty in the eternal realm. Though secular topics such as scientific or geographical discoveries interested them, there was also a religious or casuistic element to some of their work, by which they attempted to define their relationship with God.John Donne (between 24 January and 19 June 1572 – 31 March 1631) was an English poet, satirist, lawyer and a cleric in the Church of England. He is considered the pre-eminent representative of the metaphysical poets. His works are noted for their strong, sensual style and include sonnets, love poetry, religious poems, Latin translations, epigrams, elegies, songs, satires and sermons. His poetry is noted for its vibrancy of language and inventiveness of metaphor, especially compared to that of his contemporaries. Donne's style is characterised by abrupt openings and various paradoxes, ironies and dislocations.These features, along with his frequent dramatic or everyday speech rhythms, his tense syntax and his tough eloquence, were both a reaction against the smoothness of conventional Elizabethan poetry and an adaptation into English of European baroque and mannerist techniques. His early career was marked by poetry that bore immense knowledge of British society and he met that knowledge with sharp criticism. Another important theme in Donne’s poetry is the idea of true religion, something that he spent much time considering and theorising about.He wrote secular poems as well as erotic and love poems. He is particularly famous for his mastery of metaphysical conceits. A Burnt ShipOut of a fired ship, which by no wayBut drowning could be rescued from the flame,Some m en leap'd forth, and ever as they cameNear the foes' ships, did by their shot decay;So all were lost, which in the ship were found,They in the sea being burnt, they in the burnt ship drown'd. John Donne A Lame BeggarI am unable, yonder beggar cries,To stand, or move; if he say true, he lies. John Donne

Labour Economics

Because the coefficient is less than 1, the price elasticity is said to be inelastic. 3. We know that if the price of a product changes, we will see movement along the emend curve. Name and explain, using an example, three factors that can cause the demand curve for labor to shift. (3 marks) Factors that cause the demand curve for labor to shift can be the income levels of consumers. When there is an increase in one's pay their confidence will rise which will allow them to want to spend more money.The demand of goods and services increase because there is also an increase in their disposable income. Also when there is an increase income some consumers taste and preferences may change Just like if there was huge decline in the income (they would prefer to shop on the sale jack). If they do not make as much money as before the demand for that goods or service will decrease (shift to the left) while they look for substitutes (goods or services for a cheaper price).For example, if Kather ine gets laid off from work, instead of buying cleaning agents for their washroom at Shoppers Drug Mart where she normally shops, she would probably rather pick up two bottles of Pine sol for a dollar each at Dollar. Also firms may decrease the hours for their employees or even lay employees off when there is a decline in demand for their goods or services. They would not hire additional workers because their revenue may not cover their additional cost. 4.Briefly explain the difference between pay equity and employment equity. (2 marks) Pay Equity focuses on paying an employee for the value of their work without discriminating against the employees' sexual orientation. Whereas employment equity lies under the Human Rights legislation, where one should not be discriminated by their sexual orientation, religion, age, race, and disability. This allows a firm's workplace environment to be more diverse and allowing everyone an equal opportunity when applying to work for one's company. Labour economics Trade unions are also known as Labour unions. It is the association of labourers in a particular trade, industry, or company, created for the purpose ot securing Improvements In pay, benefits, working conditions, or social and political status through collective bargaining. It's an organization whose membership consists of workers and union leaders who are united to protect and promote their common interests. What do you mean by Collective Bargaining?It is a formalized process by which employers and independent trade unions egotiate terms and conditions of employment and the ways in which certain employment † related Issues are to be regulated at national, organizational and workplace levels. It is a collective and a continuous process. The principle of ‘give and take' has been infused in the principle of Collective Bargaining. It is a technique that has been adopted by the unions and the managements to reconcile their conflicting Interests.It is called ‘collective' because the employees as a group select representatives to meet and discuss differenced with the employer. It is known as argaining' because the method of reaching an agreement involves proposals and counter proposals, offers and counter offers and other negotiations. Definition of collective Bargaining by Byar & Rue (1991 It Is a process that Involves the negotiation, drafting, administrative and interpretation of a written agreement between an employer and a union for a specific period of time.Collective Bargaining:- To Employees:- Importance of 1 . CB helps to develop a sense of responsibility and accountability among the employees. 2. CB increases the morale and productivity of employees. 3. It helps In securing a prompt and fair settlement of grievances. 4. Effective collective Bargaining machinery strengthens and gives value to the trade union movement. 5. The discrimination and exploitation of workers, If any, Is constantly monitored and addressed. To Management:- 1 .It help s in reducing labour problems to the minimum and in maintaining cordial relations labour and management 2. It opens up the channel of communication between the workers and management thus increasing worker participation In decision making. 3. CB helps to create a sense of Job security among employees. . It makes simpler for the management to resolve issues at the bargaining level rather than taking up complaints of individual workers. MINIMUM WAGES AND FAIR WAGES It Is the lowest wage permitted by the law or by a special government.The minimum wage attempts to protect employees from the exploitation, allowing them to afford the basic necessities of life such as clothing, water, food and shelter. The minimum wage rate fluctuates between countries, and sometimes between states or provinces. tOf3 It must prov10e not only Tor tne Dare suoslstence 0T IITe out Tor tne preservatlon 0T he efficiency of the workers by providing some measures of education, medical care, etc Criteria: It must be calculated for a family of 4 units.It must be able to provide 2700 calories per adult per day. It should be sufficient for 18 yards of cloth per unit per annum. There should be a provision for reasonable house rent, light, fuel and miscellaneous items. The Minimum Wages Act, 1948 is an Indian legislation enacted by the Parliament of India for statutory fixing of minimum wages paid to skilled unskilled labourers. Under the act, a tripartite committee â€Å"the Tripartite Committee of Fair Wage† was appointed that et definitions and guidelines for formulating a wage structure in India.The objectives of this act were :- To provide minimum wages to the workers working in the organized sector. To stop exploitation of the workers by paying them lower wages and making them work for longer hours. To empower the government to take steps for fixing the minimum wages and to revise it in a timely manner. A Living wage is a wage that is high enough to maintain a normal standard of livi ng. It is not only for the bare essentials for the worker and his family, but also for comfort, protection against ll-health, social needs, etc.Fair Wages refers to wage levels or company practices regarding wages that provide a living wage for workers while still complying with all national regulations (such as minimum wage, overtime payments, provision of paid holidays, etc. ) It is in between minimum wages and living wages, but below the living wage. With a fair wage, employees should be able to maintain a decent standard of living for themselves and their families. CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN LABOUR MARKET The Indian labour market can be categorized into three sectors: Rural workersOrganized of the formal sector Urban unorganized or informal structure Two-third of India's workforce is employed in agriculture and rural industries. One- third of the rural households are agricultural labour households, subsisting on wage employment. The unorganized sector has low productivity and off ers lower wages even though 94% of India's working population is engaged in this sector. Wage determination for organized sector:- The ‘day, Week' and ‘month' are the basic units for wage calculation. Normal working week is 5 days (for government) or five half days/ six days.Hour' is generally not a unit for wage calculation in the organized secotr. Wage determination for unorganized sector:- ‘Day is the common unit of calculation for unorganized sector. In certain cases, piece rate wages (it is the pay for each item produced) is in vogue, as well as hourly wages. MODERN THEORY OF WAGES The modern economists are of the view that Just as the price of a commodity is determined by the interaction of forces of demand and supply, the wage rate of specific types of workers can also be determined in the same way with the help of sual demand and supply analysis.This is why modern theory is also known as demand and supply theory of Wages. Now the demand for labour is a deri ved aemana. t I Is aerlvea Trom tne aemana 0T goods wnlcn It produces, along wltn otner factors of production. The marginal revenue product of labour (MRP) means the addition to the firm's revenue which it obtains by hiring one additional worker. The entrepreneur will continue hiring workers up to the point at which the cost of employing a worker is Just equal to the marginal revenue product of the labour.Now ue to the law of diminishing returns, the marginal revenue productivity of labour decreases as more and more workers are employed and hence the demand cure for labour is downward sloping. If we add up the demand curves for the labour of all the individual firms, we get the demand curve of the industry which determines the wage rate for labour. Now the supply of labour means the number of workers ready to work at the existing wage rate. Unlike the supply of other goods, the supply of labour cannot be increased with the increase in demand.Under perfect competition, the upply curv e of a firm is perfectly elastic and the firm cannot influence the price/ wage. The supply curve of an industry is upward rising from left to right, this means that an industry can get more labourers at higher wages. Determination of the equilibrium wage level: Wage rate is determined by the supply of and demand for labour. Equilibrium wage state is said to be determined at the point where supply and demand are equal. In the fgure below, at point N, the supply curve and demand curve cut eachother. WN is the equilibrium wage rate.

Critically evaluate english's law's approach to the issue of marriages Outline

Critically evaluate english's law's approach to the issue of marriages between persons of the same sex - Outline Example ship in UK, civil union and registered partnership between same sex couple was legalized under the Civil Partnership Act of 2004 (Legislation.gov.uk a). The number of same sex couples has been constantly increasing. Since same sex couples are legally allowed to enter into Civil Partnership agreement, the number of same sex couples registered under Civil Partnerships reached up to 6,281 couples (3,227 gay couples and 3,054 lesbian couples) (Office for National Statistics). Although Civil Partnership in UK provides same sex couples with almost the same privilege and rights of marriage, there are still some differences between Civil Partnerships and marriage. Specifically in Civil Partnerships, the concept of adultery was removed as a ground for Civil Partnership dissolution (Barker; Barker). This is true since adultery in the legal definition can take place only to heterosexual couples (Bindmans Civil Partnership). In the case of marriage, adultery is a major offense which is legally acknowledged as a ground for marriage dissolution (ibid). Unlike in marriage, the ground of non-consummation for nullity is not applicable in Civil Partnership making Civil Partnership as good as a legal status instead of a family relationship (Barker; Cretney). For this reason, Civil Partnership can be used by friends for tax haven purposes. Since Civil Partnerships is still not recognized by the UK government as marriage, a lot of opposing parties argue that Civil Partnership violates the Equality Act 2010 and some Articles of the European Convention on Human Rights (Bamforth; Government Equalities Office). The case of Wilkinson v Kitzinger [2006]1 is a good example wherein the same sex couples are fighting for the idea that same sex couples should not be excluded in the institution of marriage because of public discrimination particularly in workplace (Bell). Although Wilkinson and Kitzinger were legally married in Canada, their married was considered void in UK because of the

Integration Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Integration - Assignment Example The modern practice in school curriculum is that instructors teach differentiation first before integration in contrast to the inception of calculus (Pitt, 2012). In the 17th century, Newton and Leibniz contribution made a milestone in advance of scientific developments in Europe. Kepler found the volume of a bucket of wine to be a pile of thin horizontal circular discs. B. Cavalieri’s line formed from many points, plane formed from many lines and solid made from many planes. All these gave initiating ideas in integration. At the same time Newton and Leibniz related integration and differentiation to be reverse processes in their â€Å"Fundamental Theorem of Calculus† popularly known as â€Å"Newton-Leibniz Formula† (Stewart, 2010). The calculus method became a very powerful tool in solving mathematical problems where other analytical methods failed those times. For instance, Jacob Bernoulli using calculus methods discovered that logarithmic spring under various transformations is invariant. In 1696, Johann Bernoulli asked a question that said, assuming friction was zero the path taken by a point mass to slide from a point that is higher to a point that is lower taking the shortest time possible (Hawkins, 2001). This led to the development of the calculus of variation. Other 17th century developments are contained in Euler’s introduction in analysis infinitorum, institutiones calculi differentialis and institutions calculi Integralis. Consider the following shape, to find the volume and the surface area of the shape using integration then employ the use of infinitesimally small areas and volumes. Obtain the volume using this formula For example, take a parabola in the x-y plane whose height bases on another parabolic function. Say, from x=-2 to x=2 that has elevation determined by a circle of radius 4 i.e. . Taking y to lie between y=x2+4 and y=12-x2 then the volume is given by Integrating again using

Climat chenge Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Climat chenge - Essay Example purposely developed a new protocol which aims to serve as the latest legal instrument that can be used to help us overcome the challenges and negative consequences of severe climate change (Rajamany; United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). In response to the latest UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the main obstacles behind a successful global agreement will be tackled in details followed by discussing the extent to which these challenges can be easily overcome. In the past, several Conventions were developed by the United Nations and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change which include the Bali Plan Action in 2008, the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, and the Cancun Agreements were implemented to effectively control the global climate change (Kyoto Protocol; United Nations and UNFCCC). The Kyoto Protocol served as the â€Å"legal binding agreement under which industrialized countries will reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2% compared to the year 1990† (Kyoto Protocol) whereas the Bali Plan Action served as a two-year guideline that aims to finalize the legal agreement in 2009 (United Nations and UNFCCC). In 2010, the Cancun Agreements is composed of decisions made by the international community on each country can work together in solving the long-term problems with regards to climate change (UNFCCC). In 2012, the Kyoto Protocol is expected to expire by the end of 2012 (The New York Times). Last November 2011, the Durban Climate Change Conference was held in Doha, Qatar in order to publicly introduce a new protocol which could serve as a universal legal agreement on issues related to climate change (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). During the Durban Climate Change Conference, it was mentioned that the new expiration date for the Kyoto agreement would be either 2017 or in 2020 (The New York Times). As of August 2011, a total of 192 states and countries have already signed and ratified the

Leadership in Customer Service Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Leadership in Customer Service - Article Example There are so many kinds and interpretations of a leader, but which one does it take to make a customer-service-driven business successful? Leadership needs to have a vision of what is wanted to achieve. Leaders possess not only this but are driven by passion—the strength and the energy to work against the odds to achieve the vision (Williams, 2005). Great leaders delegate and empower. Leaders do not just pin point on people and tell them what to do instead they create structure, allocate responsibility, help create systems, provide support and training and resources, and empower subordinates to make decisions thus making them feel significant in the business group. Through empowerment, a leader is set differently from an authoritarian. A leader does not dictate but respect employees and treats these people as customers as well. Great leaders sometimes have to take tough decisions but there's always respect for the subordinates (Williams, 2005). Workers are encouraged to: participate in the action plan; develop awareness of the goals; participate in the change plan; have reasonable expectations and attitude. Communication flow is always open to a leader and is never one way. Successful business leaders are always keeping their people informed thus key performance indicators are displayed; targets are set, accomplished and celebrated. Everyone is made to feel as part of a community to create a sense of unity (Williams, 2005). A leader motivates people to do what is important and leads an example. There's a famous story about a group of visitors to Disney who was walking in the Magic Kingdom when they saw a grey-haired man walk out of his way to pick up a piece of litter. One of the members of the group approached the man and asked, "How many custodians are there here?" The man replied, "45,000". The guest was surprised at so many.

Undecided Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Undecided - Assignment Example With the increased need of parking space in urban centers, U.S. has adopted diverse policies to ensure charging of fair prices on curb parking centers. Thus, this reflection paper offers a relative analysis of policies of parking reform in U.S. with interest in the imperious role played by urban planning to ensure sustainable development. Parking and curb reforms are among the critical features of transportation infrastructure in a developed country like United States. Therefore, the management and provision of curbs should be coordinated carefully with other elements of transportation and the government should ensure that curb customers are charged fairly. The author of the article â€Å"Yes, parking reform is possible† argues that urban centers should charge the right prices for curb parking. I think this is a policy that should be adhered to because charging either too low or too high prices bring many negative effects. If cities charge too high prices for curb parking, then the parking will lose many customers resulting to employees losing their jobs, and the cities losing tax revenue (Shoup 31). On the other hand, charging too low prices means there will be no curb spaces, thus, leading to traffic congestion, fuel wastage, and air pollution. Further, the writer of this article argues that the council should aim at setting parking policies and not parking charges. It is logical to support this statement because curb spaces are multi-billion dollar private or public investment in the United States. There is need of managing these resources, in a wise manner. The prioritization of the competing needs for curb parking in urban centers of the United States depends highly on the set prices. This is because the wise management of parking resources and curb spaces is important for achieving economic development and wider transportation goals. In addition, availability of parking spaces is one of the key contributors to the economic health and can aid

Holding up general motors Issues in the fisher body case study Literature review

Holding up general motors Issues in the fisher body case study - Literature review Example Holding up general motors? Issues in the fisher body case study A classic case study in the economics of organizations, and pertinent to this discussion, regards the relations that prevailed between General Motors, Inc. and the Fisher Body Company, Ltd. during the 1920s. Accordingly, the first of accounts to be provided was by Klein et al, whose work – Vertical integration, appropriable rents, and the competitive contracting process – was to form the basis upon which all discussions were held. This was until Ronald Coase, presented his perceptions on the issue of transaction cost economics, through his 2000 work - The Acquisition of Fisher Body by General Motors. Through this work, Coase was to decisively criticise the then ‘prevailing perception’ on the relations between General Motors and the Fisher Body Company. His criticism was founded upon the grounds that the long held perspective was factually incorrect, providing critical input in support of his arguments. Regarded as the founding father of modern (contemporary ) transaction cost economics, his input and experience are thus considered critical towards effectively discussing the case under study. Of particular importance is his visit to the U.S, with specific focus placed upon the car manufacturer industry during the 1930s (Coase 2000, p. 16). General Motors and the Fisher Body Company case that occurred during the 1920s has significantly affected economic discussions and undertakings in the current world.

Why do we do school Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Why do we do school - Essay Example oday, an individual does not necessarily require a degree to make money because the contemporary age is full of opportunities using which people can establish their own businesses and make much more money than what they can by becoming employed in other companies. However, doing business in the 21st century requires much more knowledge, and different kinds of talents and competencies that make it much more complex than what one needed to do business in the gone ages. Today, if a person has a lot of money granted to him by the parents but the person himself is not educated, it is quite likely that the person would be caught in the net of frauds laid by other smarter and more educated people. In the present age, it is even more important to have the skills to survive and thrive personally as well as as a businessman in a dynamic and increasingly multicultural society than to have money. Schools today serve the very purpose of inculcating these skills in the students in a whole range of ways e.g. by teaching them foreign languages, business administration and management, and advanced accounting techniques and softwares etcetera. Schools have proved their importance already by helping nations rise because of the quality of education imparted by them. â€Å"When the economies of Japan, Korea, Thailand, and other East Asian countries were growing at rates so fast that they were predicted to surpass the U.S. economy within short periods of time, the education system was often blamed for the nation’s seeming loss of competitive advantage† (Hanushek, n.d., p. 141). We do schools to grow intellectually as well as socially so that we can live a happy and prosperous life in the challenging environment of the contemporary age. In the highly competitive society of the present age, getting a degree from a school is only one of the factors that increase an individual’s chances of getting employed. There are thousands of people in the society who have the degrees and are still

Development levels and record Essay Example for Free

Development levels and record Essay To observe Lydia during a creative choosing session. I will try to observe her development levels and record how she interacts with other children and the adults around her.  Setting  The primary school, in which I am working in, is situated on a campus with a sports centre, a community school and a 6th form college. It has 6 junior classes and 3 infant classes. There is a class room assistant and a teacher for each class. On a Thursday and a Friday there are 2 students working in the infants. There are a various number of parent helpers in on different days of the week. Lydia is 6 years 11mths old and is in yr. 2. She has just completed her SATS. She is in the 1st (higher) set for math and in the 2nd (middle) set for literacy. She has many friends and enjoys school, learning new things. Lydia has 3 friends who she usually plays with and works with in class. They are all girls and all in year 2. Hannah, Shannell Erica and Lydia always do the same activity even if they dont all agree. English is Shannells second language and she sometimes has trouble with the language barrier between the girls in the group. I will observe Lydia on the 27th of July 2002 for 45mins during a creative choosing session. There are several activities set up in the class rooms and the children may choose which activity they wish to participate in. Some of these activities include painting, drawing, junk models and collage work. Observation  I will make notes during my observation, then copy it up into a written report.  Lydia heads straight for the art table at the far end of the classroom where a painting session has been set up. Her and many of the yr2 girls start collecting sheets of paper. Lydia, Hannah, Erica and Shannell ask me what they can paint as I sit down at the end of the table. I suggest that they draw each other. So the girls pair up. Hannah and Lydia start to paint Shannell and Erica. Lydia looks closely at Ericas features and tries to copy down all the details. She notes the freckles, the dimples the small earrings and the way her hair is put up. She miss judges the size of Ericas nose and as a consequence the picture looks out of place. She mixes up the colour to fill in for Ericas skin tone. Erica sits slightly impatiently fidgeting slightly. Lydia still concentrates on the painting and ignores Erica impatience and continues to concentrate hard on the colour mixing. I ask her some questions. Lydia, what colours make green?  Thats easy, you just mix blue with yellow   But you have to put yellow in first cause blue is darker and you have to put loads of yellow in to make it a lighter colour.  Ok, how about purple?  Oh Miss Carr, that is well easy, dont you know?  Im just seeing if you do, so that if you dont know I can teach you.  Oh, -thinks hard- ok. Its blue and red. Isnt it?  Yes well done, How about brown?  Yellow, blue and red! I learnt a lot from with class 1 / 2 K and this was a typical session. Everyone in the class has different view on things and even though there are definant social groups every one is friends with everyone else. The teachers and other staff need to practice anti-discriminatory and anti-bias practice. It is important to portray equal opportunities.  Children are to be treated equally but at the same time their personal needs need to be taken into consideration. In class 1 / 2 K there are friends who are in definite social groups then there are groups that inter-change and mix with the whole of the infants school. This observation points out how the girls work together to the get tasks completed. They all work together to form a good team. It is a clear that the team works well; they all have roles to play. Theres the team leader Hannah, the quick thinker Erica and the do-er Lydia who always works hard to complete necessary tasks. Shannell is a hard worker and tries to fit in even if she doesnt always understand. I learnt to set up and clear away activities with the childrens help how to encourage exploration of colour and creativity. I managed to gain the childrens confidence and by helping them to reach their full potential.  All four girls developed their fine motor skills and creativity in this exercise. They practice painting techniques and different colours and styles. They learned how to co-operate and communicate with each other. They learn to trust opinions of the adults they work with, they learn to respect their knowledge and experience. I think that in the future the children could be put into groups to help them to mix into different social groups and form new relationships. Lydia could have, in the future, extra help during tasks which involve thinking though complicated theories, and she has trouble understanding some complicated concepts.

DNA Fingerprinting How Accurate is it

DNA Fingerprinting How Accurate is it Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the genetic material that is contained within the cells of living organisms and it is considered to be the building blocks for a persons genetic makeup. Each cell in the human body that has a nucleus contains exactly the same DNA as all the other cells and each persons DNA is unique to that person, with the exception of identical twins. This means that the DNA that comes from a persons blood, skin cells, semen or saliva is all exactly the same. DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA typing, is the process of taking DNA samples from a crime scene and attempting to match it to samples taken from possible suspects. The DNA that is collected can come from a variety of difference sources; it can come from blood, semen, skin cells, saliva, and a variety of other bodily fluids and tissues. DNA can be a powerful tool in forensic science because of the fact that it is unique to the person that it came from. However, when a sample is not handled carefully or results are not interpreted properly the same powerful tool can set guilty people free or condemn innocent people. The question that must be answered then is should DNA evidence be the backbone or merely the starting point of an investigation? The fact that DNA is now being used to solve so many crimes there became a need for a way to store the information from the samples collected from crime scenes and criminals. The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is the center of the national DNA database that has been established and funded by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). CODIS allows laboratories from all over the country to share and compare DNA data collected from crime scenes and suspects in order to match criminals to their crimes. CODIS includes the National DNA Index System (NDIS), which contains the data for the entire country, the State DNA Index System (SDIS), which contains the data for each state, and the Local DNA Index System (LDIS), which contains information for a particular city. Uses of DNA in Court Cases Many people play a vital role in the collection and processing of DNA samples. It begins with the first responders to the crime scene, followed by the technicians who collect the samples and then concludes with the laboratory technicians that process and interpret the results. The first responders must every effort possible not to contaminate any possible sources of DNA before they can be collected. This requires that the technicians be familiar with where the DNA may exist at the crime scene therefore reducing the chance that this evidence becomes contaminated or damaged. The DNA that is collected from a crime scene must first be amplified so that a sufficient amount of DNA is available to test and analyze. The DNA must first be removed from the cells that it is contained in and this is done through a chemical process that lyses the cell and releases the DNA. Once the DNA has been released from the cell it can then be amplified which is done through a process called Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). During PCR the DNA is heated to a temperature of 90-95Â °C which allows the strands of DNA to separate from each other and once the strands are separated they can then be duplicated creating two identical strands of DNA. This process is a chain reaction because each time it is repeated the amount of available DNA is doubled. Each cycles take anywhere from 2-5 minutes and when repeated 25-30 times can increase the amount of DNA over 1 million fold. This means that a very small amount of DNA collected from a sample can be tested. Once the samples have been amplified there are prepared for matching by using a test kit that can detect characteristics called alleles at different locations, called loci, on the genome. These alleles are present in what are called short tandem repeats (STRs). STRs are repeated portions of DNA that appear in close relation to each other. These repeating portions of DNA can allow differentiation of DNA from one person to another. Currently laboratories in the United States use kits that identify 13 loci that have been selected by the FBI for CODIS. Each locus can have a number of different alleles and the pair of alleles at one locus constitutes each persons genotype at the loci. Once each set of alleles is detected at each locus it is now called a DNA profile. This profile can then be used to match samples taken from the crime scene to the suspects or to CODIS in an attempt to find the perpetrator of the crime in question. Accuracy of DNA Fingerprinting There are many factors that come into play in the validity of the forensic DNA fingerprinting. These can include coincidental matches between DNA profiles, contamination of the DNA evidence through accidental transfer of cellular material, errors in labeling or classification of samples, misinterpretation of the results, either accidental or intentional, and planting of biological evidence. The coincidental matches can come from the fact that degradation of the DNA, limited quantities of DNA, or contamination of the samples can cause a result of incomplete or partial DNA profile. A full profile match would match all 13 of the loci where a partial match while a partial match would have fewer alleles. When a profile is incomplete or partial it can produce fewer markers to match it can be more likely produce a match by chance. That is, as the number of available markers goes down the probability of false positive increases. Another factor that can increase the likelihood of false positive is the relation of the people that the samples are taken from. What this means is that two people who are related to each other have a higher probability of producing a partial match and how closely they are related can increase this likelihood. The closer the family relation is the higher the probability of a partial match. The probabilities are as follows, 1 in 14 billion for a first co usin; 1 in 1.4 billion for a nephew, niece, aunt or uncle; 1 in 38 million for a parent or child and 1 in 81 thousand for a sibling. 7 A larger risk of a false positive is possible when the DNA sample used has an incomplete profile. When an incomplete profile is put through CODIS the probability of getting a match is increased which may result in an innocent person being accused of a crime they did not commit. This was the case in Chicago in 2004 when a 6 locus profile was run through the state database after a burglary. This partial profile returned a match to a Chicago woman. The woman was arrested but then had to be released when she provided an alibi, there was no way she could have committed the crime because she was in prison serving time for another crime. 7 Contamination of the samples is the most common factor that can affect the accuracy of the DNA profile. Contamination can come from many sources and can occur at different points along the sample collection and preparation timeline. The first time that contamination can occur is during the collection process. Carelessness during the sample collection can introduce unwanted DNA into the sample therefore making it impossible to distinguish the DNA from the unwanted source from the DNA evidence. If someone sneezes or coughs on the sample, if the person collecting the samples touches their face or other body part and then touches the area that might DNA to be tested it essentially ruins the sample. Other ways that the sample can become tainted is through the use of dirty or contaminated collection tools, using gloves that are not clean, or by putting the samples into plastic rather than paper bags. The second opportunity for sample contamination can occur in the laboratory where the sample processing takes place. In the laboratory the sample is susceptible to the same types of contamination as when the samples are being collected as evidence and great care must be taken by the laboratory technicians to prevent contamination from occurring in the laboratory. The only exception to this is that in the laboratory the samples can be mislabeled. If the laboratory technicians are careless and mislabel Recourse for a Wrongful Conviction There are, of course, some people that can be set free by the use of DNA testing. Before DNA fingerprinting became the widely used forensic technique cases relied heavily on eyewitness testimony and the testimony of the victims themselves. However witnesses can sometimes be so traumatized or the crimes can happen so quickly that the wrong person can be accused and the testimony can be so convincing that innocent people can be convicted of crimes. There is now a way that people who have been wrongfully convicted can prove their innocence. The Innocence Project is a non-profit organization that takes requests from inmates that believe that there may be a chance that DNA evidence would exist such that they can be exonerated for their crimes. To date the Innocence Project has been able to help get ***** innocent people freed from prison. While this new freedom is a joyous time for the wrongly accused and convicted it can be a very confusing time for the victims. Even though the victims have wrongly identified the perpetrators of their crimes they spend years believing that the person that was convicted was actually the person that committed the crime against them. It can be a very painful and confusing time for the victims and they sometimes have a hard time believing that they were responsible for an innocent person spending years, sometimes decades in prison. In other cases some victims have a very hard time believing that the person they have spent years believing committed this crime against them is not actually the person that committed the crime. Ethical Evaluations As for the Innocence Project to perform a utilitarian analysis you would have to weigh the good of freeing innocent people from a life behind bars to the pain and fear that the victims feel when learning that these people are set free. While no person should have to feel pain and fear, the good of freeing innocent people is far greater. Summary Conclusion Many people rely on the accuracy of the DNA evidence that is presented in court cases and expect this evidence to be infallible. The victims of the crimes are relying on this DNA to be able to find the persons responsible for the crimes so that they can be convicted. On the other hand the innocent people accused of crimes are relying on this DNA evidence to prove their innocence and set them free. But in both cases the people involved are relying on the fact that this evidence is accurate and does not contain any errors, errors that can introduced through human error or errors that are innate in the statics of DNA matches between the samples taken. The fact that these errors are present and may not be avoidable leads to the conclusion that DNA evidence should not be the only evidence that is used in cases but rather a starting point for an investigation.